Reformed Anglicans

Appendix C: Confession, Absolution, and Penance (410-417). Rev. Jacob gives a brief history of the developments of confession (private, public, voluntary, mandatory), absolution (declaratory), and penance. Ambrose and Cyprian had a particularly egregious system of penance, including a 10-year program of stages for readmission to the Holy Communion. This was all driven by the widespread Capernaitic errors about Holy Communion (Wafer-Worship). By the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, confession, absolution, and penance were made mandatory. The Anglican’s 1662 BCP still has the Romanizing germ in the Office of Visitation of the Sick—Ego te absolvo. The old Reformed Episcopalians made a solid effort to clean up Romanizing germs.

Appendix B: Authority of Councils (402-409)—nothing here to see. He notes that the historic position of the Church of England in Articles VI and VIII makes authority supreme over Councils.

APPENDIX A: Rev. Jacob presents the doctrines and practices of the early church. These include the mixed chalice, the sign of the cross, sacerdotalism, priestcraft and priesthood as a sacrifice, opus operatum, absolution (where the priest acts as the mediator between God and the parishioner), holy oils, transelementation of baptismal waters, Christ’s resacrificing on the "altar," baptismal regeneration, transelementation in the Holy Communion ("Bread-Worship"), reservation of the communion hosts, miraculous stories about Bread-Worship, veneration of chalices, prayers and offerings for the dead (as mentioned by Cyprian, Arnobius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Epiphanius, and Augustine), purgatory, monks and nuns as super-athletes, justification by almsgiving (as taught by Chrysostom), intercession of saints and prayers to them (as taught by Cyril of Jerusalem and Gregory Nazianzen), Mariolatry, Mary’s perpetual virginity, worship of pictures and images, veneration of ascetici

Appendix D: Apostolic Succession (432-438). Rev. Jacob discussed the struggles of the early English Reformers and pointed out that the "magic hands" view of "sacerdotal juicing" is not the doctrine of the Church of England. This is evident from the fact that it was not included in the Articles and BCP. According to Article 23, “it is not lawful for anyone to take on the office of public preaching or ministering the Sacraments in the Congregation before he is lawfully called and sent to execute the same. And those who are called to this work should be chosen and called by men who have public authority given to them in the Congregation, to call and send Ministers into the Lord's vineyard.” No mention of the juice-em-up view. Secondly, Elizabeth's Statute (1570, Anno iii, Reginae Elizabethae c. 12) allows those ordained elsewhere (non-episcopal) to be received provided they subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles. Objections to presbyterial ordinations did not re

In this text, Rev. Jacob refers to Bishop Lightfoot and his commentary on Philippians. Bishop Lightfoot holds a 2-office view of the New Testament, and Rev. Jacob traces three stages of church governance. First, there are Ignatius's 2 offices, but morphing into 3 offices given the heresies of the day, the influence of imperial persecution, and the smallness of bishoprics. Second, there is the expansion of the Church with widening duties, but still Presbyterial. Finally, there is Cyprian’s exalted view of the Bishop as a vice-gerent of Christ on earth. According to admissions made in the 1990s Yahoo chat group, Shifty Sutton loves Cyprian, before those in the know smoked him out. Rev. Jacob also retails Augustine’s comment that there were 500 bishops in northern Africa and 400 bishoprics in Asia Minor, indicating that the bishoprics were small and many, not large and regional.

Rev. Jacob argues that the New Testament had two orders of office. However, some writers in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th centuries interpreted history with their own views, after the emergence of episcopacy. Justyn Martyr and the Shepherd of Hermas supported the two-office system. Clement of Rome wrote to the Corinthians when they didn't have a Bishop, and Polycarp also favored the two-office system. When Polycarp wrote to Philippi, there was no Bishop there, but there were some Presbyters who were showing a desire for pre-eminence.

The following is a report on the URS #6 meeting held on Saturday, 20 April 2024 at 10 AM EDT/3 BST. The meeting was attended by six individuals, with Don Veitch opening in prayer and Paul Slish closing the session with a prayer. During the meeting, Nigel Wilson's draft document was discussed, specifically Article 1's affirmation and denial of apostolic succession. The concept of apostolic succession was defined as the transmission of the apostolic doctrine, which is verbal in nature and involves teaching and holding to sound and healthy Bible doctrines. It was noted that all spheres have apostolic succession, including the individual, family, church, and its officers. This article denied a separate and superior order as seen in Bishops. Further discussion was held on the terms episcopos, presbyteros, and diakonos in the NT and post-apostolic church. Grahame Wray and Don Veitch affirmed the affirmation and denial, while Paul Slish abstained as an Episcopalian. The group agreed

ARTICLE IV - Apostolic Succession Preface :The tendency to corruption in doctrine, discipline and conduct as a result of erroneous claims to Apostolic succession, is a matter of historical record and a pressing issue again today in many churches where the decisions of a few in higher ranks of office wield a proportionally greater force and influence. In setting forth a scriptural view of Apostolic succession, we affirm and deny the following : 1. We affirm the form of Apostolic succession exclusively understood as the passing down of Apostolic teaching and doctrine to succeeding generations and of faithful men to teach and uphold it, together with the continuation of the commission given by Christ to make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit and teaching them to observe all that He has commanded them. We deny the form of Apostolic succession which teaches that Christ through the Apostles instituted a separate and superior order of Bish

During the discussion, G.A. Jacob talked extensively about the roles of Presbyters and Deacons, but did not address the difference between Presbyter and Bishop. He suggested that the church has the ability to adopt and modify this distinction. We look forward to exploring this topic further in the future. However, it is important to remember that we should not disregard Paul's Pastoral Epistles. We would like to thank Mr. Anglican for your discussion and for slipping in the episcopacy and claiming churchly authority for it. Now, take your seat in the rear.

G.A. Jacob covers the typical roles of church leaders: presbyters, bishops, and deacons, all male (presbyteroi, episcopoi, diakonoi). The text supports male headship and governance and excludes women. Please keep this information confidential. It would annoy the Hats and Leaders in AMNA (Anglican Mess-Ups in North America)

First Organization of the Church (51-86). In his analysis, Jacob provides a clear contrast between the polity and writings of the Old Testament and the New Testament. In the Old Testament, detailed rituals, festivals, sacrifices, civic, moral, dietary, priestly, and other laws were prominent, along with governance by Moses, seventy Elders, Judges, and a Monarchy. However, none of these appear in the New Testament. After the conversion of 3000 people, Jacob speculates that congregations must have formed some structure, although this is not addressed in Acts. Jacob then delves into the "ministry of gifts" and the "ministry of order," which arose as circumstances allowed. He notes that the Corinthians allowed lay involvement in various ways, reflecting the idea of all believers' Priesthood.

Rev. Jacob provides a more in-depth discussion by exploring the "visible" and "invisible" aspects of the church. He explains that the visible aspects include things like hymnbooks, liturgies, confessions, governance, and various regulations. However, he advises that these should be reviewed according to the Scriptures. He goes into detail on this point, emphasizing that the apostolic church differed from the Nicene Church. He notes that the Oxfordians were fixated on the Nicene Church over the Scriptures, making more assertions than demonstrations. He also mentions the 40-year progress of the Anglo-Romanists, who had a tendency towards Romanizing practices and beliefs, and who viewed the Reformation as a crime and blunder. This might sound like the views of certain groups within the ACNA (like Iker and Ackerman), the REC (including Sutton and his cohorts), the FCE (led by Fenwick and his crew), the G-3 communities, and the "Anything Goes" attitude of the F

Mr. Rising makes some ancillary comments on the Catechism, noting that it is essentially sacramentalism leaving off grand truths. 18 of 25 questions concern baptism, confirmation and communion. We most certainly would add the 1662 period involved the slaughter of robust Reformed Theology by tossing the Westminster Standards. “In view of what has been thus far said, we feel constrained to affirm that 'There are Romanizing Germs in the Prayer Book.' They are embedded in our otherwise Protestant formulary. They are found in the Doctrines of the Rule of Faith, of the Ministry, of Baptism, and of the Lord’s Supper. Developed according to the fixed law of germination, they bring forth fruit after their own kind, such as: The Bible is not the sole Rule of Faith; the Ministry is an exclusive priesthood; Baptism is an instrument of regeneration; the Lord’s Supper is an expression of Consubstantiation” (38). Mr. Rising, writing in the 1860s, notes and complains of the rising Sacerdotalis

Are there Romanizing germs in the Prayer Book? Yes. The Baptismal Office of “seeing this child is regenerate” in the plain language teaches it. English BCP-Evangelicals have tried to skirt it. Can the Americans skirt it? Probably not, since systematic theology and exegesis are not native to the modern American Anglicans, although older men like Bishop Cummins, Bishop Cheney, Bishop Meade, and others were “pained” by language. Often most heard, it’s a “charitable presumption” of regeneration. The “charitable hypothesis. Nice try, but it’s equivocating. Do we teach our children to equivocate and use double-talk? The plain language is a stative verb “is” in the present tense—not a past tense nor future tense, but a statement of being. Often, English Evangelicals would have the “mental reservation” in using the office, e.g. Rev. George Gorham. Bishop Meade, the American Evangelical Episcopalian, said, “Why could not another prayer on the same plan be introduced into the Baptismal Service,

Are there “Romanizing germs in the Prayer Book?” Yes. The Ordinal is embarrassingly replete with it. Ministers must be re-ordained if they lack the episcopal “juice.” ACNA’s Bob Duncan required reordination if from a Reformed background. However, the BCP does not require reordination if previously ordained as a Romanist or Greek cleric—they have the right juice. This change was made in 1662, but not in the Elizabethan period. Another Romanizing germ: “Receive the Holy Ghost…” It’s a command to the ordinand. The Power Bishop gives the “order.” The Power-Poohbah controls the Holy Spirit and sovereign grace. This is opus operatum with the magic words of the Bishop. The direct object of the imperative is the Holy Ghost, jumping at the powerful words of the Bishop. It also adds the magic words—“now committed unto thee by the Imposition of our hands…” The instrumental preposition “by” shows the Power-Proud-Boy (Bishop) throwing grace around. It is repeated shamelessly. This also occurs durin

Mr. Rising is making the case that the BCP, Articles, and Ordinal contain coordinate authorities in seminal and germ form: ancient Fathers, canons, Apocrypha, and more. The ministry is discussed: 3 offices of Bishop, Priest, and Deacon. The deacon is a "probationary priest." The Bishop is a "promoted priest." Mr. Rising discusses the history of presbuteros, sacerdos, diaconos, episcopos and more. The ordinal talks about the Presbyter "taking authority" and "receiving" the Holy Spirit through the magic hands. God's sovereignty is channeled. For 12 centuries, this was always sought by prayer or precatorily, not through magic hands. Baptismal regeneration will be discussed later, but the same thing appears: magic hands and magic words by the potent Presbyter are available. The Reformed Episcopal Church made a good start but did not clean up the Ordinal. The "Ego te absolvo" appears in the Office for the Visition of the Sick. The same c

Mr. Rising has observed that while the Articles of the Church of England demonstrate adherence to Sola Scriptura, there are instances where the use of church traditions such as the Apocrypha and ancient Fathers appear to contradict this principle. He is concerned that if the tendency towards Roman Catholicism is not eliminated, it may lead to the adoption of Roman Catholic practices. Mr. Rising has identified two groups within the Church of England, namely, the Romewardizers and the Evangelicals.

Mr. Rising began his talk by introducing the religion of Romanism. He explained that there are two main features of this religion - propitiatory sacrifice and dual salvation (synergism, God and man). These two features are like "seeds" that can bear fruit if allowed to grow naturally. However, Mr. Rising also mentioned three negative consequences of these features - ecclesiological authoritarianism, priestly potentates, and laity without assurance of Christ's merits. He promised to expand on these later. After this, Mr. Rising proceeded to give a history lesson, starting from the Tudor period. He paused at Mary 1 and will continue from there later.

Dear colleagues, I would like to express my gratitude to Nigel Wilson for his work on apostolic doctrine, prophetic doctrine, Scriptural doctrine, and the organic result of apostolic transmission and succession by doctrinal teachings and evangelism. Our organization, the "Synod" of the URS, is a society and think tank that welcomes outsiders as observers, but we are Confessionally Reformed. We are currently reviewing the nature and extent of church authority, which is subordinate to Scripture. Today’s URS, 6 April 2024, is here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lP5RmWNEL58 . During our recent meeting, we discussed a few topics, including the willingness to redact the 1662 BCP, the adoption of more Reformed Confessions alongside the Thirty-Nine Articles, and the appeal of Masonry to some members. We also noted some useful resources related to these topics, including F.S. Rising’s 44-page “Are there Romanizing Germs in the Prayer Book?” (cf. https://archive.org/details/aret

The Authority of the Church (281-290). Thomas explored the concept of church authority in his work (281-290). He delved into the nature of church authority in relation to rituals, ceremonies (liturgies), moral authority, and its limitations. He also talked about the Church's role as the witness, keeper, teacher, and conservator of Scriptures, and Church’s subordination to Scripture. Additionally, he discussed the right of private judgment. The Church of England's belief in Sola Scriptura is expressed in Articles Six, Eight, other phrases elsewhere, and the Homily on Scriptures. According to the formularies, Scripture should be used to interpret liturgy, Creeds, and formularies, not the other way around. 

1555-1556. In the years 1555 and 1556, England experienced a wave of religious persecution that resulted in the burnings and degradations of several religious figures. Among the victims were Latimer and Ridley, both of whom were tried in September and October of 1555. During his trial, Latimer rebuffed friar Pedro de Soto, while Ridley remained unshaken in his faith. Despite their steadfastness, the ecclesiastical and legislative machinery was in place to burn the "heretics," and on 16 October 1555, the fires were lit. Latimer died quickly, but Ridley suffered a longer and more painful death.   Cranmer, who had been a close ally of Henry VIII, was also among those targeted for persecution. He was forced to watch the burning of Latimer and Ridley, and then was divested of his office on 4 December 1555. Despite this, he planned to appeal to a General Council, as Luther had done before him. However, Mary Tudor was determined to see him burn as well.   Romanists attempted

“Our study of the important subject shows the absolute necessity of avoiding all exaggeration of “the Church.” In particular, care must be taken in regard to any personification of the Church as “Holy Mother,” or, in the words of Augustine, that “He shall not have God for his Father who will not have the Church for his Mother.” “High” views of the Church often mean low views of Christ, for there is an undoubted danger of placing the Church between the soul and Christ. The true Churchman is one who believes in the view of the Church taught by St. Paul in the Epistle to the Ephesians. This is the highest doctrine, has the virtue of being absolutely Scriptural…On the other hand, we must be equally careful not to depreciate the Church, for this extreme is equally serious. Its life must be fostered. The truest Catholicity is limited only by New Testament principles, excluding none who love the Lord in sincerity. We shall never arrive at New Testament doctrine by the extreme of a low doctrin

Thomas unequivocally asserts his views on the visible and invisible Church. He maintains that the visible Church must exhibit the marks or notes of the pure Word of God preached, sacraments duly administered, and proper discipline. He strongly dismisses the concept of Petrine supremacy as unexegetical. Moreover, he is resolute in his belief that the Eastern and Roman Churches have made grave errors in their doctrines. He starkly points out that the Roman Church's practices, such as clerical celibacy, speaking to the congregation in an unknown tongue, withholding the cup from the laity, tradition, supererogation, purgatory, seven sacraments, transubstantiation, and other practices are anti-apostolic, un-Biblical and require immediate correction and discipline.

Article 19 of the Church of England was aimed at distinguishing itself from Rome. In 1563, Bishop Jewel's "Homily for Whitsunday" took a firm anti-Roman stance, emphasizing that an individual's connection to Jesus Christ comes through Trinitarian operations, election, predestination, and other aspects of redemption. The Church has its roots in Paradise and Divine operations and is known by various names such as Ecclesia, Assembly, Kirk, Kerken, and more. The process of individual conversion leads to the emergence of corporate and social elements, thus rejecting the notion of "individualistic Christianity." The gathering or assembly is expressed through the community, and the Church has local, regional, and universal usages, and it is described as both "visible" and "invisible." According to Nowell's Catechism, the Church is the "universal society of all the faithful predestined by God from eternity to everlasting life," whic

1553-1555. Round-up, imprisonment, and Cranmer’s death. Between the years 1553 and 1555, the government of England conducted a thorough crackdown on religious reformists. During this period, Queen Mary ordered the imprisonment of three prominent figures, namely Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, while many other reformists were also incarcerated. In order to gather evidence for heresy convictions, disputation proceedings began on April 13, 1554. The disputation centered around three issues, namely: (1) whether Christ's body and blood were present in the communion elements, (2) whether any other substance remained after the consecration, and (3) whether the Mass was a propitiatory sacrifice for the quick and the dead. Cranmer was examined by Chedsey, who was assisted by John Harpsfield. The primary objective was to establish incriminating evidence for the heresy charges. Queen Mary was keen to bring England back under the Roman Catholic Church and sought the support of Archbishop Reginal

Edward VI, the son of Henry VIII, passed away on 6 July 1553 at the age of 15 due to tuberculosis. After his death, controversies surrounded his new will, which replaced Henry's will, which had been approved by Parliament. Lady Jane Grey was made the new Queen by lawyers and Privy Council members in case Edward died. However, Cranmer rejected the move but was later pressured by Edward, the lawyers, and others to sign it. The new will had sixteen provisions, and the second one stated that no changes should be made to religious beliefs. Mary's accession. In Oct 1553, Mary became the Queen of England. However, the Council made a mistake by allowing her freedom of movement instead of placing her under house arrest. Mary took advantage of this freedom and rallied support while Lady Jane Grey was briefly made Queen for nine days from 10 July forward. People in London supported Mary as she rode into the city. Rumors and papers were circulating that Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canter

In the 19th and 20th centuries, various religious movements and organizations emerged. Methodism, liberalism, the World Council of Churches, the National Association of Evangelicals, and Anglo-Catholics (who were Anglicans who adopted more Romanist practices) were some of these movements. Megachurches also began to appear, and new forms of mass media, such as television and radio, played a role in spreading religious messages. Vatican 1 and 2, as well as the 1994 Catholic Catechism, impacted Catholicism during this time. Pentecostalism emerged as a new form of Christianity, and the emergent churches also gained popularity. Recently, younger individuals from the Baptist and Pentecostal communities have been drawn to neo-traditionalist movements like "TradCaths" and "OrthoBros" due to a desire for historical roots.

During the Reformation and post-Reformation period, the Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed Churches were closely linked to civil magistrates, who played a significant role in governing and regulating these religious institutions. However, the Anabaptists and Congregationalists emerged as important advocates for religious freedom and autonomy. This ultimately led to the break in the connection between the churches and the civil authorities. The Nicene Creed was the primary standard for defining the faith during this time. Additionally, the preaching and teaching of the Canonical Scriptures were regarded as fundamental to the faith. The proper administration of the sacraments was also deemed critical. Church discipline, advocated by Calvin, Bucer, and the Belgic Confession, was seen as an essential aspect of maintaining doctrinal purity. Church discipline served to correct doctrinal errors, prevent moral corruption, and ensure the purity of the Church. In conclusion, during the Reforma

Historical Theology (Dr. Allison): Church in the Middle Ages (574ff.). Thomas Aquinas, a celebrated philosopher and theologian, is known for his significant contribution to the concept of viewing the church from three distinct perspectives. He proposed that the church could be perceived as the church militant, which symbolizes the church at war and fighting, the church triumphant, which represents saints in heaven, and the church expectant, which signifies Purgatory, where people expect further cleansing and transfer to heaven. Aquinas was renowned for his opposition to Rome's growing involvement in secular matters such as government, economics, power grabs by Popes, and the growing immorality. This conflict with Rome led to the emergence of new ecclesiologies, each with its unique perspective on the church and its governance. For instance, Joachim's apocalyptic vision of the Old Testament, New Testament, and a new age with hermits and preachers, was one of the ecclesiologi

Nigel Wilson set forward a draft document of 6 affirmation for discussion--affirmations. See: https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/#inbox?projector=1. We got through the overview but stayed on point one. Paul Slish offered many good points, but his presentation on Dr. Colvin's view of the myth of diaconal succession in Acts 6 was postponed until the next meeting of Saturday, 6 April 2024, at 10 EDT/3 PM (British summer time). The zoom link for URS #5 is: https://us06web.zoom.us/meeting/register/tZIqcuuprj8sHdxgjb88My_1pQKQ9XBoPezh . Nigel offered Canon Ashley Null's comments on Dr. Cranmer's view of apostolic succession. A wonderful confab. Grahame Wray and others underscored "apostolic orthodoxy and othopraxy." Phil (Don) Veitch stressed the NT as the "last will and testament" of the NT writers, wishing to lay down the record for all generations. We commented on the corruption of monarchialism. Joe Mahler and I noted that "apostolic succession"

Iconolatry, iconoclasm, Charlemagne’s emergence, the 1054 schism, bickering over place and power, and Western Papalism emerges. 

I/we believe...in the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church. Apostolicity applied to tier 1 and tier 2 churches—the first as direct plants (by apostles) and tier 2 as offspring of apostolic doctrine and practice. Apostolic succession = apostolic doctrine, nothing more, nothing less. The mustard seed parallel obtains as does the tares and wheat of Matthew 13. The Constantinian church involves changes as did the collapse of the Roman empire, an aspect developed by Augustine in his City of God.

In the modern period, women’s ordination, complementarianism, and egalitarianism have emerged as modern issues. The Pentecostal and Baptacostals (several) led the way in the late 19 th -early 20 th centuries. The mainliners followed suit in the last half of the 20 th centuries. Multi-site churches and megachurches following the business model of sales and marketing also developed.

Three views of church government with variants have informed church history: (1) 3 tiers of Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons (some with Cardinals and the Pope); (2) 2 tiers of Presbyters and Deacons (yet with Synods for regional governance); and, (3) Congregationals with Elder/s and Deacons with local governance only. Polycarp, Ignatius, Clement of Rome, Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Cyprian of Carthage, and Jerome are put forward. The 2-order view dominated while Ignatius and Cyprian advanced a more 3-tiered view. Jerome strongly argued for a 2-tiered view based on Biblical exegesis, his strong skill-set. Also, a Bishops was largely viewed as co-equal with Presbyters or Primus inter Pares. Cyprian argues with Stephen of Rome over Petrine supremacy, Novatianism, and rigorism regarding the lapsed—Cyprian against Petrine and Stephen for. Constantinople 381 and 451 Chalcedon noted Rome’s primacy of honor, yet their equality with Alexandria, Jerusalem and Antioch closely behind. This bo

Calvin thoroughly develops God’s sovereignty in relation to redemption. Arminianism, Dordt, Wesleyan-Romanism like Trent, Finneyist-Tridentinism, Edwardseanism, the 1740 and 19 th century revivals are discussed.

Apostolic Succession? What is it? What is it not?

Soteriological monergism would appear, disappear, and reappear in various permutations through the Middle Ages down to the days of the Reformation. Luther was monergistic until he wasn’t (e.g. baptismal regeneration like the Anglo-Papists and Anglo-Babylonians), while Calvin, the WCF, and the old RECers were soteriologically monergistic with coherence, consistency and cogency. Calvin thoroughly developed God’s sovereignty in relation to redemption. Shame about the Anglo-Babylonians though.

Augustine’s (or the Bible’s) view of original sin, predestination, human depravity and total inability, effectual grace, and the gifts of saving faith and repentance are set off again Pelagius and Cassian, a crypto-Pelagian or half-Pelagian. The 417 Council of Carthage followed Cassian. However, the Word and sovereign God converted Clovis and the pagans of Boniface’s times, believing that God’s Word and instruction were the instruments of God’s working. These issues would appear and reappear through the middle ages down to the days of the Reformation.

Regeneration, Conversion and Effective Calling (474-497).  Faith, repentance unto life, regeneration, being born again, effectual calling, and the instruments of God’s Word and sacraments (God’s Word enacted externally but internally to the elect) are closely allied. Monergism strongly characterizes the early church: the NT itself, Barnabas, Justin Martyr, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, Theophilus and Augustine stress the divine Giver, effectual communication of faith and repentance, and monergistic regeneration. Slippage to synergism and theft of the divine glory will creep into the woodwork over time. 

1552 BCP. The Parliament of 1552 passed the Act of Uniformity for Dr. Cranmer’s third project—a 1552 revision of the 1549 Book of Common Prayer. As early as 1550, Dr. Cranmer was consulting with Bucer and Vermigli. Objections were raised about vestments, prayers for the dead, invocation of the Holy Spirit in the Prayer of Consecration. The Communion service was altered from “The body of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve they body and soul unto everlasting life” to “Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving.” This reflected Cranmer’s view from Christ-in-the-crumbs to Christ-in-the-heart of believers. This was an “assault” on Babylonian (and Lutheran) views. In 1559, Elizabeth put both statements back-to-back. The 1552 funeral rite precluded influence upon the departed by prayers by the living. Stone altars on the eastern end were replaced by wooden Tables, rood screens were removed, the Agnu

Aramaic and possibly dialects were used by Jesus in Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria and to a Syrian-Phoenician woman. Hebrew was also used in the synagogues. Greek and Latin were used variously, but Aramaic and dialects were widely used in provinces of Palestine and locales. Yet, the Gospels were taken into Greek within a few decades, e.g. Syrian Antioch. The twelve Apostles used Aramaic.